Begash (Kazakhstan)

Begash (Kazakhstan) Begash is a Eurasian pastoralist campsite, located in Semirchye in the piedmont zone of the Dzhungar Mountains of southeastern Kazakhstan, which was occupied episodically between ~2500 BC to AD 1900. The site is located at about 950 meters (3110 feet) above sea level, in a flat ravine terrace enclosed by canyon walls and along a spring-fed stream. Archaeological evidence at the site contains information about some of the earliest pastoralist Steppe Society communities; the important archaeobotanical evidence suggests Begash may have been on the route which moved domestic plants from the point of domestication into the broader world. Timeline and Chronology Archaeological investigations have identified six major phases of occupations. Phase 6 (cal AD 1680-1900), HistoricPhase 5 (cal AD 1260-1410), MedievalPhase 4 (cal AD 70-550), Late Iron AgePhase 3 (970 cal BC-30 cal AD), Early Iron AgePhase 2 (1625-1000 cal BC), Middle-Late Bronze AgePhase 1 (2450-1700 cal BC), Early-Middle Bronze Age A stone foundation for a single house is the earliest structure, built at Begash during Phase Ia. A cist burial, characteristic of other late Bronze Age and Iron Age kurgan burials, contained a cremation: near it was a ritual fire pit. Artifacts associated with Phase 1 include pottery with textile impressions; stone tools including grinders and micro-blades. Phase 2 saw an increase in the number of houses, as well and hearths and pit features; this last was evidence of roughly 600 years of periodic occupation, rather than a permanent settlement. Phase 3 represents the early Iron Age, and contains the pit burial of a young adult woman. Beginning about 390 cal BC, the first substantial residence at the site was built, consisting of two quadrilateral houses with central stone-lined fire-pits and hard-packed floors. The houses were multi-roomed, with stone lined postholes for central roof support. Trash pits and fire-pits are found between the houses. During Phase 4, occupation at Begash is again intermittent, a number of hearths and trash pits have been identified, but not much else. The final phases of occupation, 5 and 6, have substantial large rectangular foundations and corrals still detectable on the modern surface. Plants from Begash Within soils samples taken from the Phase 1a burial cist and associated funerary fire pit were discovered seeds of domesticated wheat, broomcorn millet and barley. This evidence is interpreted by the excavators, an assertion supported by many other scholars, as indication of a distinct route of transmission of wheat and millet from the central Asian mountains and into the steppes by the late 3rd millennium BC (Frachetti et al. 2010). The wheat consisted of 13 whole seeds of domesticated compact free-threshing wheat, either Triticum aestivum or T. turgidum. Frachetti et al. report that the wheat compares favorably to that from the Indus Valley region in Mehrgarh and other Harappan sites, ca. 2500-2000 cal BC and from Sarazm in western Tajikistan, ca. 2600-2000 BC. A total of 61 carbonized broomcorn millet (Panicum miliaceum) seeds were recovered from various Phase 1a contexts, one of which was direct-dated to 2460-2190 cal BC. One barley grain and 26 cerealia (grains unidentified to species), were also recovered from the same contexts. Other seeds found within the soil samples are wild Chenopodium album, Hyoscyamus spp. (also known as nightshade), Galium spp. (bedstraw) and Stipa spp. (feathergrass or spear grass). See Frachetti et al. 2010 and Spengler et al. 2014 for additional details. Domesticated wheat, broomcorn millet and barley found in this context is surprising, given that the people who occupied Begash were clearly nomadic pastoralists, not farmers. The seeds were found in a ritual context, and Frachetti and colleagues suggest that the botanical evidence represents both a ritual exploitation of exotic foods, and an early trajectory for the diffusion of domestic crops from their points of origin into the broader world. Animal Bones The faunal evidence (nearly 22,000 bones and bone fragments) at Begash contradicts the traditional notion that the emergence of Eurasian pastoralism was sparked by horse riding. Sheep/goat are the most prevalent species within the assemblages, as much as 75% of identified minimum number of individuals (MNI) in the earliest phases to just under 50% in Phase 6. Although distinguishing sheep from goats is notoriously difficult, sheep are much more frequently identified in the Begash assemblage than goats. Cattle are the next most frequently found, making up between 18-32% of the faunal assemblages throughout the occupations; with horse remains not present at all until ca 1950 BC, and then in slowly increasing percentages to around 12% by the medieval period. Other domestic animals include dog and Bactrian camel, and wild species are dominated by red deer (Cervus elaphus) and, in the later period, goitered gazelle (Gazella subgutturosa). Key species at the earliest Middle and Bronze age levels at Begash indicates that sheep/goats and cattle were the predominant species. Unlike other steppe communities, it seems apparent that the earliest phases at Begash were not based on horse riding, but rather began with Eurasian pastoralists. See Frachetti and Benecke for details. Outram et al. (2012), however, have argued that the results from Begash should not be considered necessarily typical of all steppe societies. Their 2012 article compared proportions of cattle, sheep and horses from six other Bronze Age sites in Kazakhstan, to show that dependence on horses seems to varied widely from site to site. Textiles and Pottery Textile-impressed pottery from Begash dated to the Early/Middle and Late Bronze ages reported in 2012 (Doumani and Frachetti) provide evidence for a wide variety of woven textiles in the southeastern steppe zone, beginning in the early Bronze Age. Such a wide variety of woven patterns, including a weft-faced cloth, implies interaction between pastoral and hunter-gatherer societies from the northern steppe with pastoralists to the southeast. Such interaction is likely, say Doumani and Frachetti, to be associated with trade networks postulated to have been established no later than the 3rd millinennium BC. These trade networks are believed to have spread animal and plant domestication out of the along the Inner Asian Mountain Corridor. Archaeology Begash was excavated during the first decade of the 21st century, by the joint Kazakh-American Dzhungar Mountains Archaeology Project (DMAP) under the direction of Alexei N. Maryashev and Michael Frachetti. Sources This article is a part of the About.com guide to the Steppe Societies, and the Dictionary of Archaeology. Sources for this article are listed on page two. Sources This article is a part of the About.com guide to the Steppe Societies, and the Dictionary of Archaeology. Betts A, Jia PW, and Dodson J. 2013 The origins of wheat in China and potential pathways for its introduction: A review. Quaternary International in press. doi: 10.1016/j.quaint.2013.07.044 d’Alpoim Guedes J, Lu H, Li Y, Spengler R, Wu X, and Aldenderfer M. 2013. Moving agriculture onto the Tibetan plateau: the archaeobotanical evidence. Archaeological and Anthropological Sciences:1-15. doi: 10.1007/s12520-013-0153-4 Doumani PN, and Frachetti MD. 2012. Bronze Age textile evidence in ceramic impressions: weaving and pottery technology among mobile pastoralists of central Eurasia. Antiquity 86(332):368-382. Frachetti MD, and Benecke N. 2009. From sheep to (some) horses: 4500 years of herd structure at the pastoralist settlement of Begash (south-eastern Kazakhstan). Antiquity 83(322):1023-1027. Frachetti MD, and Maryashev AN. 2007. Long-Term Occupation and Seasonal Settlement of Eastern Eurasian Pastoralists at Begash, Kazakhstan. Journal of Field Archaeology 32(3):221-242. doi: 10.1179/009346907791071520 Frachetti MD, Spengler RN, Fritz GJ, and Maryashev AN. 2010. Earliest direct evidence for broomcorn millet and wheat in the central Eurasian steppe region. Antiquity 84(326):993–1010. Outram AK, Kasparov A, Stear NA, Varfolomeev V, Usmanova E, and Evershed RP. 2012. Patterns of pastoralism in later Bronze Age Kazakhstan: new evidence from faunal and lipid residue analyses. Journal of Archaeological Science 39(7):2424-2435. doi: 10.1016/j.jas.2012.02.009 Spengler III RN. 2013. Botanical Resource Use in the Bronze and Iron Age of the Central Eurasian Mountain/Steppe Interface: Decision Making in Multiresource Pastoral Economies. St. Louis, Missouri: Washington University in St. Louis. Spengler III RN, Cerasetti B, Tengberg M, Cattani M, and Rouse L. 2014. Agriculturalists and pastoralists: Bronze Age economy of the Murghab alluvial fan, southern Central Asia. Vegetation History and Archaeobotany in press. doi: 10.1007/s00334-014-0448-0 Spengler III RN, Frachetti M, Doumani P, Rouse L, Cerasetti B, Bullion E, and Maryashev A. 2014. Early agriculture and crop transmission among Bronze Age mobile pastoralists of Central Eurasia. Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences 281(1783). doi: 10.1098/rspb.2013.3382

Ischemic Stroke Essays

Ischemic Stroke Essays Ischemic Stroke Essay Ischemic Stroke Essay A stroke occurs when the blood supply to part of the brain is partially or completely reduced, depriving the brain of necessary blood and oxygen and ultimately causing brain damage. There are two main types of stroke, ischemic and hemorrhagic, but for the purpose of this paper, the focus will be on ischemic stroke. Ischemic strokes account for approximately 87% of all stoke cases and occur as the result of an obstruction within a blood vessel that supplies blood to the brain. The obstruction can either be a cerebral thrombosis or a cerebral embolism. An ischemic stroke would be classified as thrombotic if the clot forms in an artery that is already very narrow. In contrast, a stroke would be classified as embolic when a clot forms in another part of the circulatory system and then proceeds to travel to brain and causes a blockage in smaller vessels. The underlying cause of ischemic strokes is atherosclerosis, which is defined the buildup of fatty deposits inside the vessel walls and it is the buildup of these fatty deposits that leads to blockages, and ultimately stroke. There are many different factors that contribute to an individual’s risk of experiencing a stroke. Some risk factors can be reduced, treated, and changed, but others are more permanent and serve as lifelong risks. For instance, an example of a long term effect would be that the risk of suffering from a stroke increases with age and approximately doubles each decade after an individual reaches the age of 55. Stroke is also more common among men than women and the risk for experiencing a stroke increases if there is a family history of it as well. In contrast, factors such as poor diet, smoking cigarettes, and a lack of physical activity are risk factors for stroke that can be controlled and reduced. High blood pressure is also one of the leading causes of stroke, as well as high blood cholesterol and heart disease. These risks are typically considered high risk and are associated with less healthy lifestyles, but do have the potential to be overcome given a proper diet and exercise plan. Symptoms Identifying the symptoms of stroke is essential to recovery, since the longer it goes untreated, the greater the chance of severe brain damage and disability. One of the common symptoms of stroke is lack of coordination. Individuals may face difficulties walking, experience dizziness, or be prone to lose balance and stumble. Another common symptom of stroke is difficulty speaking. Individuals experiencing a stroke may slur their words and some may have difficulty understanding speech as well. In addition, another symptom of stroke is paralysis or numbness of the face, arms, or legs. When this occurs, it is important to note that paralysis is most often is present on one side of the body, but can be seen in both sides as well. Difficulty with one’s vision is also a symptom of stroke and can be present in either one or both eyes. The sudden appearance of a severe headache is additionally a symptom and is often accompanied by dizziness and vomiting. All symptoms of stroke need to be taken seriously and individual’s displaying them should be rushed to a hospital as soon as possible. Treatment and Recovery As mentioned earlier, the longer a stroke goes undiagnosed, the greater the probability of severe brain damage and disability. Furthermore, treatment of stroke is most effective in the early stages, specifically within the first three hours. This section will look at the different treatment and recovery options for individuals suffering from ischemic strokes. Treatment In regards to treatment of an ischemic stroke, doctors typically first rely on thrombolytic medication to help break down the clot and restore blood flow to the brain. Aspirin is typically given after an ischemic stroke to prevent the formation of additional clots and reduce the likelihood of another stroke. Heparin is another blood thinning agent that may be used in the case of an ischemic stroke, however it is far less common since its effectiveness in emergency settings has yet to be fully determined. The use of an injection of tissue plasminogen activator, TPA, is a technique used by doctors to treat ischemic stroke, but it is only effective within the first three to four hours after the symptoms first began. TPA is administered through a vein in the arm and works to help dissolve the blood clot and reduce the effects of stroke. However, the drug does increase the chance of a brain bleed, and the majority of people admitted to the hospital for an ischemic stroke come in too late to receive the medication. In addition to the use of medication to combat ischemic strokes, doctors may also resort to emergency procedures as well. For instance doctors may make the decision to directly input TPA into the brain through the use of a catheter that is inserted into an artery in the groin area and maneuvered to the area of the brain where the stroke is occurring. This treatment option is more invasive, but gives doctors a greater window of treatment and requires smaller amounts of the drug which reduces the risk of bleeding. Doctors may also elect to use mechanical clot removal to treat an ischemic stroke. This procedural entails a doctor inserting a catheter with a mechanical device on the end and maneuvering it inside the brain to physically remove the clot. However, if the clot is not visible, this mechanical method is not viable. Recovery After the initial emergency treatment of an ischemic stroke, the focus shifts to the recovery process which involves helping patients recover their strength and regain as much function and sense of independence as possible. Rehabilitation typically begins in the hospital and continues at home or in an outpatient facility after the patient is discharged. No two rehabilitation programs are exactly the same, and in order for them to be most effective, they must be tailored to meet the patient’s needs. Some of the common issues addressed within stroke rehabilitation include: vision problems, difficulty sleeping, seizures, incontinence, paralysis, dysphagia, hemiparesis, spasticity, foot drop, aphasia and memory problems, and fatigue. As mentioned earlier, treatment plans are typically customized based on the needs of the patient, but we will look at a few treatment options that are commonly used for stroke victims. One of the most common impairments associated with stroke is paralysis. Hemiparesis, which is weakness or partial paralysis of one side of the body, is the form of paralysis most common amongst stroke victims. This can cause a loss of balance for the individual as well as muscle fatigue, a lack of coordination, and difficulty walking and grasping objects. There are various treatment methods to combat hemiparesis, but one of the most common methods is modified constraint-induced therapy. This involves forcing the patient to use their weak side to perform certain tasks by restricting the use of the less affected side of the body. Electrical stimulation and cortical stimulation are two other treatments options that can be used through the use of electrodes to stimulate the weakened body part or the brain in the hopes of the patient regaining their mobility. These treatment methods can also be applied to other forms of paralysis associated with stroke such as spasticity and foot drop. Spasticity and foot drop can also be treated through the use of stretching exercises that help improve range of motion and flexibility while also reducing pain and discomfort. Furthermore, an additional form of paralysis associated with stroke is dysphagia, which is paralysis of the throat muscles. This can lead to problems swallowing, eating, drinking, and breathing. There are a variety of rehabilitation methods to help lesson symptoms, including swallow therapy, special exercises, medication, and surgery. Surgery is the most extensive option and is typically reserved for severe cases, but has shown to be effective in the past. Swallow therapy and exercises are often used as well and involve the use of electric stimulation to improve swallowing and exercises to strengthen throat muscles. All of these rehabilitation techniques can be coupled with medications such as muscle relaxers in order to increase the effectiveness of the therapies being used on the individual. Incontinence is also another common result of stroke and affects approximately 40-60% of stroke victims. Treatment can involve a variety of methods including but not limited to medication, bladder and bowel training, surgery, the use of a catheter, and behavioral and physical therapies. In addition to incontinence, seizures are also a side effect associated with ischemic stroke but is far less common. Antiepileptic drugs are the most common treatment method for stroke, however, they need to be carefully administered given the that they can sometimes have a negative impact on overall stroke recovery. To combat seizures due to stroke, surgery is sometimes presented as an option, as well as the implementation of a vagus nerve stimulator to help prevent future seizures, but these treatment methods are more invasive and come with a higher risk. Aphasia and memory problems are two cognitive effects of stroke that impact a multitude of individuals. Aphasia is a communication disorder that affects an individual’s ability to both comprehend and use language. Aphasia is often treated using melodic intonation therapy, art therapy, visual speech perception therapy, constraint-induced language therapy, and group therapy. However, the most common treatment for aphasia is speech therapy, which uses special exercises and techniques to improve the patient’s ability to speak. In order to combat memory problems, neuropsychological rehabilitation, cognitive rehabilitation and cognitive training are used to help improve alertness, attention to detail, recall, and the ability to function independently. Treatment in these two areas is highly important and successful rehabilitation can provide stroke victims with a better quality of life and sense of independence. Conclusion The outlook for victims of strokes varies on a case to case basis, but if caught early, there is a greater chance of a more effective recovery. The type of stroke also greatly impacts survival rates, with individuals with ischemic strokes having more positive outlooks than individuals who suffer a hemorrhagic stroke. In emergency treatment of a stroke, doctors will initially attempt acute treatment methods in the hopes of breaking up and dissolving the clot, however the most effective treatments have a limited time frame of use. Post stroke rehabilitation varies from patient to patient and is customized to fit a patient’s needs. It is often a lengthy process but in the end the results have the potential to be very positive and most patients see an improvement in their overall quality of life.

Key Factors that Underpin a Successful Entrepreneurial Team Engaged in Essay

Key Factors that Underpin a Successful Entrepreneurial Team Engaged in Setting up a Business - Essay Example He is also responsible to bring innovation in the business from time to time. All the entrepreneurial activities have to be planned in an effective way for succeeding in the venture. The business plans can range from plans for operation to strategic planning and financial planning. All these plans must be integrated in such a way so that the enterprise could achieve the desired objectives. The various departments should be linked with each other so that a proper coordination can be achieved among them. Nowadays enterprise is not only established by one person but a group of people who have common interest and work for the business. They work as a team in pursuit of the organisational goal. They are the entrepreneurial team. For the success of such type of entrepreneurial teams, every team member must have the qualities of the entrepreneur. They must have the vision, the capacity to arrange the resources and must act as per the plan. Apart from the basic entrepreneurial skills, there are other factors which lead the entrepreneurial teams to success. The success of an entrepreneur or the entrepreneurial team depends upon the success of the enterprise. ... , analysing the competition in the chosen field, analysing the operational work, analysing the human resource requirement, checking the financial viability of the business etc. This is a primary and very important step of setting up a business. Once the business plan is ready the next step is to analyse and take the assistance required for stating the business. The third step is to choose the location of the business. This step requires the analysis of the format of the business and the competitors. The location should be such which could be easily accessible to the customers and the suppli8ers, close to the competitors etc. The next step is to finance the business. This includes arranging the fund for the operations of the venture. Once the finance for the venture is arranged, the next step is to determine the structure of the business. In this step the suitable legal structure is determined according to the government rules and taxation policies and also the viability of the busine ss. The next step is to get the business registered as per the rules and regulations of the state. Once the business is registered, the next step is to register the organisation for the local taxes and the other taxes. After all types of registrations is done one applies for the required licences and permits for operating the business. This is a legal requirement without which an enterprise cannot function in the market. The last step for setting up a new business is to hire the required and efficient human resource needed for the enterprise (US Small Business Administration, No Date). Entrepreneurial process In the previous section the basic steps required for setting up a new business has been discussed. The entrepreneurial process is also to an extent similar to those steps. The